Southern Kingdoms: Cholas

Chola Empire

Between the 9th and 13th century CE, the Chola dynasty governed a vast portion of the southern Indian peninsula as well as some portions of Southeast Asia.
The Chola dynasty is broadly split into three periods: the Early Cholas (approximately 300 BCE to 600 CE), the Medieval Cholas (roughly 850 CE to 1279 CE), and the Later Cholas (about 1216 CE to 1379 CE).
After the Sangam era, the Cholas in the Kaveri region continued to be subservient to the Pallavas.
They reappeared as Vijayalaya (850–871 CE), captured Muttaraiyar and the Kaveri delta.

Administration

The capital of the Cholas was Tanjore.
The Central Government, Provincial Government, and Local Government comprised the three main governmental divisions of the Chola Empire.
The inscriptions at Uttaramerur provide insight into the Chola rule.
The administration was headed by the king.
The dynasty of Chola rulers was inherited. The eldest son of the king succeeded to the Chola throne, according to Chola royal family custom.
The symbol of the Chola rulers was the tiger.
The ruler was assisted in his task by a council of ministers. Higher-level officials were referred to as Peruntaram, and lower-level ones as Siruntaram.
The Chola government’s main source of income was land revenue, which it relied significantly on. Sixth of the produce from the land was collected as a tax.
In addition to land earnings, the empire also received income from customs and tolls. In addition, taxes collected from mines, ports, and forests helped the king’s finances.
The Cholas possessed a powerful navy and army. There were seventy regiments in the army. The importation of highly proficient Arabian horses came at a heavy cost to the Chola rulers.
Since the Chola king personally heard most key cases, he functioned as chief justice. The village assembly heard minor conflicts in the village.

Economy and Society

The Chola monarchs were keen to conquer strategically important commerce centers to increase their power throughout the Indian subcontinent.
Land sales were the state’s main source of revenue, but the entire tax system was designed to profit from this in many ways.
The Chola Kingdom’s two primary levels of income extraction were local and supra-local. The most common tax was called kutimai, and it was levied on the cultivator.
Local taxes included a variety of labor dues, the most common being irrigation labor (vetti/vettinai) at the village and nadu levels. Natacci was the collective term for the taxes levied on residences and communal spaces.
Terms for trade and artisanal dues
- Cunkam (a toll), tattar pattam (a tax on goldsmiths),
- Kurai kacu (a tax on fabric),
- Vetrilai (a tariff on betel leaf),
- Vannar parai (a tax on washermen),
- Paci pattam (a tax on fishing)
The caste system was widely prevalent (2 major divisions among castes – valangai and idangai)
Saivism and Vaishnavism continued to flourish.
Industry and agriculture both prospered. Agricultural prosperity was attained by the construction and maintenance of irrigation tanks, together with the restoration of forest lands. The weaving business in Kanchi prospered, especially silk weaving.
The great demand for images for temples and kitchenware led to the evolution of metal crafts.
Trade and commerce were booming thanks to merchant guilds, trunk routes, and peruvazhis. Coins in gold, silver, and copper were widely available in different denominations.
The Chola Empire had close trade ties with China, Java, Sumatra, and Arabia. Large quantities of Arabian horses were brought to bolster the cavalry.
In the mostly agrarian culture of the Chola period, landholding was the main factor determining social position and hierarchy.
At the elite brahmadeya settlements, Brahmin landholders known as brahmadeya-kilavars were established with tax exemptions, displacing the local peasants (kudi neekki). Like in Brahmadeyams, temples received land known as devadana, which was tax-free.
The temples became the centre of a number of activities throughout this time. The vellanvagai communities’ landowners occupied the next position in the social structure.
Land ownership was not permitted for Ulukudi (tenants), and they were compelled to work the properties owned by Brahmins and vellanvagai village holders.
Landowners retained melvaram, or the majority of the harvest, while the ulukudi received kizh varam, or the lesser part. The lowest socioeconomic classes continued to be those of workers (paniceymakkal) and slaves (adimaigal).

Art and Architecture

The Dravidian temple architecture reached its peak during Chola rule.
The three most well-known Chola temples are Darasuram, Gangaikonda Cholapuram, and Brihadeshwara Temple.
The exquisitely modeled contours of figures with flexible attitudes, intricate embellishments, and endearing features enhance the Chola temples. Even in modern-day Indonesia and Sri Lanka, Chola art has left its mark.
There are numerous exquisite wall paintings in Chola temples. Unlike Ajanta paintings, Chola paintings have wide-open eyes. The paintings are vibrant and alive with energy.
Cholas created magnificent bronze sculptures of dancing Shiva and Nataraja by using the lost-wax technique.

Education and literature

Priority was also given to education. In addition to maths and temples serving as learning spaces, a number of educational establishments prospered.
Information regarding the colleges that were located at Ennayiram, Thirumukkudal, and Thirubhuvanai can be found in the inscriptions at these sites.
These institutes taught not just the Vedas and Epics but also sciences like mathematics and medicine. Lands were endowed to manage these organisations.
Tamil literature reached its zenith during the Chola dynasty. In the tenth century, Thiruthakkadevar and Kundalakesi penned Sivakasintamani.
The two masterpieces of this age are the Ramayana by Kamban and the Periyapuranam or Thiruthondar Puranam by Sekkilar. The Kalinga war of Kulottunga I is described in Jayankondar’s Kalingattuparani.
The Moovarula by Ottakuthar describes the lives of three Chola monarchs. The Nalavenba is written by Pugalendi.
Works on Tamil grammar include Kalladam by Kalladanar, Yapperungalam by Amirthasagarar, Jain, Nannul by Pavanandhi, and Virasoliyam by Buddhamitra were created during the Chola dynasty.

Decline of Cholas

Traditionally accepted narratives have often emphasized the Chola Kingdom’s fall in the late 12th century as a result of poor leadership.
The continual struggle among the Cholas was caused by the frailty of Rajaraja Chola III and Rajendra Chola III who followed.
A feudatory who even temporarily held Rajaraja Chola III hostage was Kopperunchinga I, a chieftain from Kadava state.
In the politics of the Tamil country during this period, the Hoysalas were involved in a dispute.
The Cholas and Pandyas were unable to realize their full potential because of the division of the Tamil kingdoms, which they fully exploited.