Stone Ages

Paleolithic (Old Stone Age)

About the Period

• The period before 10000 B.C.E is assigned to the Old Stone Age. Old Stone Age sites can be found over the Indian subcontinent and are usually located near water sources. Caves and Rock shelters used by Palaeolithic humans  have been found across the subcontinent. 

Important Paleolithic Locations

• The Soan Valley and Potwar Plateau in northwest India.
• The Siwalik Hills in north India.
• Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh. (UNESCO Site)
• Adamgarh hill in Narmada valley.
• Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh.
• Attirampakkam near Chennai.

Social Life 

• Mostly Hunter-Gatherers – They used stone tools, hand-sized and flaked-off large pebbles for hunting animals. 
• Stone Tools – They used hand-sized stone tools and flaked-off large pebbles for hunting animals. Stone implements are made of a hard rock known as quartzite. Large pebbles were often found in river terraces.

 Stone Tools – Pic Credit – Wikimedia Commons 

• No evidence of the use of Language for Communication. 
• Bhimbetka cave in Madhya Pradesh is an example of Paleolithic Culture.

Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age)

The period of the Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age is roughly from 10000 B.C.E to 6000 B.C.E was the transitional phase between the Paleolithic Age and Neolithic Age.

Important Mesolithic Locations 

• Langhanj in Gujarat
• Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh
• Some areas of Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar

Social Life 

• Tools – Microliths are little stone artifacts, typically measuring less than five centimeters. During this time, the use of bow and arrow became prevalent.
• During this period, people continued to hunt and gather. However, there appears to be a transition from large animal hunting to smaller animal hunting and fishing.
• Beginning of a settlement – People began to stay in one location for extended periods. 
• Domestication of animals, horticulture, and primitive cultivation began. These sites contain animal bones from dogs, deer, boars, and ostriches. 
• Burials with microliths and shells were sometimes practiced.

Neolithic (New Stone Age)

The Neolithic Age dated from 6000 B.C.E to 4000 B.C.E. 

Important Locations 

• Burzahom, near Srinagar in Kashmir valley
• Chirand in Bihar
• Belan Valley in Uttar Pradesh 
• Maski, Brahmagiri, Hallur and Kodekal in Karnataka
• Paiyampalli in Tamil Nadu
• Utnur in Andhra Pradesh.

Social Life 

• The emergence of village communities based on sedentary life – the practice of agriculture, and domestication of animals,  led to the establishment of settlements. 
• Polished Stone tools and axes were found to be more effective instruments for hunting and chopping trees. 
• Use of Wheel – Pottery was made using wheels. Pottery was used to cook and store food grains.
• Agriculture – Wheat, barely, rice, and millet were cultivated in various regions across time. Rice cultivation was widespread in eastern India. Domestication of sheep, goats, and cattle was commonly practiced. Cattle were employed for both cultivation and transportation.

Chalcolithic (Copper-Stone) Age 

• Chalcolithic cultures emerged in river valleys. The Harappan culture belongs to the Chalcolithic culture.

Prominent Chalcolithic Locations 

• Ahar-Banas Culture (Rajasthan) – Ahar near Udaipur and Gilund
• Malwa Culture (Madhya Pradesh) – Navdatoli in Western Madhya Pradesh
• Jorwe Culture (Maharashtra) – Inamgaon and Chandoli near Pune in Maharashtra
• Navdatoli (Madhya Pradesh)
• Inamgaon (Maharashtra) – Associated with Jorwe Culture.

Features of the Chalcolithic Age 

• Metallurgy and Copper Tools: The most notable aspect of the Chalcolithic Age was the development of copper metallurgy. Communities began to mine and process copper, resulting in the production of copper-based tools and weaponry. These advances in metallurgy transformed many elements of society, including agriculture, trade, and warfare.
• Agricultural Expansion: The Chalcolithic communities grew a range of crops, including wheat, barley, rice, millets, pulses, and oilseeds. The availability of copper tools aided in land clearing, and irrigation, and improved agricultural practices, resulting in increased food production. The practice of slash burn or jhum cultivation was used; neither the plough nor the hoe was found at any site.
• Domestication: They raised cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, and buffaloes. Domestication of animals occurred for meat purposes because no milk or dairy products were discovered.
• Craft specialization flourished during the Chalcolithic Age. Communities honed their skills in pottery, metalworking, bead-making, and other crafts. Skilled artisans created exquisite pottery vessels, copper tools, jewellery, and other artefacts, demonstrating their artistic and technological abilities.
• Pottery Making: During India’s Chalcolithic Age, pottery making was an important craft that exhibited scientific breakthroughs, creative expressions, and cultural dynamics. The pottery displayed a diversity of forms, ornamental techniques, and regional differences, shedding light on the Chalcolithic people’s daily lives, traditions, and social connections. The black and red pottery and ochre coloured pottery (OCP) were the most popular.
• Trade Networks: Chalcolithic communities actively participated in long-distance trading networks. They traded goods and minerals like copper, semi-precious stones, pottery, and other commodities. This encouraged cultural contacts, the spread of ideas, and the formation of socioeconomic links across regions.
• Megalithic burials were a defining feature of the Chalcolithic Age. These burials included the creation of enormous stone constructions or mounds to commemorate the deceased. The presence of megaliths indicates a belief in the hereafter and the importance of rituals related to funeral traditions.